Session: Government Agency Student Posters

Paper Number: 173652

Eco-Responsive Binder Jet 3d Printing of Raw-Earth Materials Using Local Sands and Tung Oil-Based Binders 

As part of the ongoing work under the Future Manufacturing Seed Grants (FMSG)
project (NSF Award #2229267), this research presents the design, fabrication, and
validation of a novel custom-built binder jet 3D printer aimed at sustainable construction
using local sand and tung oil-based binders. The system implements a unique layer-
wise additive manufacturing (AM) method called Sustainable Compression Curing
(SCC), which is specifically designed to enable low-energy, portable, and eco-friendly
production of raw-earth construction materials. SCC combines the benefits of
vegetable-oil-based (VOB) resin chemistry, passive compaction mechanisms, and
flexible power compatibility, making it highly suitable for decentralized and off-grid
construction applications. The hardware is developed using a Xaar Inkjet Development
Kit, which serves as the foundation for integrating a Drop-on-Demand (DOD) inkjet
printhead tailored to the rheological and surface energy properties of the VOB binder,
primarily based on tung oil. The DOD printhead demonstrated excellent resolution and
deposition accuracy, crucial for controlling binder distribution across highly variable
granular beds. This core part is integrated in the fully custom framework which provides
a smooth sand delivery via gravitational feeding mechanism, a double rail gantry system
for uniform and low-vibrational transition of the moving components, and an automate
curing system utilizing LED light and thermal bed capabilities. A critical innovation in this
system lies in its custom spreading and raking apparatus, which uses a gravity-fed
mechanism and exploits the angle of repose and mechanical properties of sand. This
allows effective handling of sands with a wide range of particle sizes and shapes. The
spreading unit ensures uniform layer deposition and compaction, which are essential for
achieving densely packed and mechanically stable building blocks. Experimental

validation was performed using a variety of natural sands and binder formulations,
resulting in strong, cohesive blocks suitable for structural testing. To ensure high quality
and process transparency, the prototype is equipped with a multi-modal in-situ
monitoring system, combining thermal imaging and a vision-based inspection system.
The thermal camera captures heat distribution and curing behavior of the binder during
layer-by-layer deposition, offering insights into binder spreading uniformity and reactive
curing dynamics. Simultaneously, the vision system enhanced by custom image
analysis algorithms enables real-time detection of layer defects, misalignments, and
inconsistencies in sand compaction or binder placement. This monitoring framework
allows for closed-loop control and error detection, increasing reliability and
reproducibility in raw-earth 3D printing. Altogether, this work contributes a novel, sensor-
integrated AM platform tailored for sustainable construction, demonstrating the potential
of locally sourced materials, bio-based resins, and smart monitoring for next-generation
decentralized manufacturing systems.

Presenting Author: Elsie Lappin Georgia Southern University

Presenting Author Biography: Elsie is a Master’s Civil Engineering student at Georgia Southern University whose research centers on Structural Health Monitoring and Nondestructive Testing (NDT). Her work integrates Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing (PAUT), dielectric profiling, and machine learning to advance defect detection and classification in steel and concrete composite structures.

Authors:

Elsie Lappin Georgia Southern University
Oluwadamilare Akinbode, Georgia Southern University
Hossein Taheri Georgia Southern University
Drew Snelling Georgia Southern University
Scott Thompson University of Missouri
Rafael Quirino Georgia Southern University
Karin Goldberg Kansas State University
Genevieve Baudoin Kansas State University